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National Jewish Community
Relations Advisory Council Guide to Program Planning Of the Constituent Organizations |
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Equal Opportunity and Social Justice |
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Current Status and Economic Condition of Women Changing Conditions The status of women in the political arena in the United States has been enhanced by the increase in the numbers of women elected officials, the appointment of women to high level positions in the Clinton Administration, and the high profile of First Lady Hillary Rodham Clinton. Notwithstanding these political advances, there remain gross disparities between women and men in terms of wages and opportunities for advancement to senior management positions. While the right to reproductive choice has received support from the Administration for the first time in 12 years, attempts to provide federal funding for abortion services continue to be largely unsuccessful. Background While women have made significant strides in the political arena in recent years, they constitute only 11 percent of the U.S. House of Representatives and 7 percent of the U.S. Senate. At the state and local levels, only 6 percent of the nation's governors, 18 percent of mayors of cities with populations over 30,000, and 22 percent of statewide elected positions are held by women. The 1994 mid-term elections may provide opportunities for further progress. President Bill Clinton's appointment of women to positions such as Associate Justice of the United States Supreme Court, Attorney General, Surgeon General, Secretary of Health and Human Services, and others, as well as his use of the talents of the First Lady in regard to health care issues, has established a clear pattern of support for the effectiveness of women in some of the most senior positions in government. While further advances for women in the political arena need to be achieved, the conditions of American women in the work force require more immediate attention. To promote equity for women in the workplace and improve the economic well-being of women and their families, the co-chairs of the Congressional Women's Caucus have reintroduced, for the 12th time, the Economic Equity Act, which addresses, among other issues, sexual harassment, employment discrimination, child care, expanding opportunities for women business owners, and pensions. The Equal Remedies Act, which would remove the cap on compensations and punitive damages available to victims of sexual discrimination, also has been introduced in the 103rd Congress.
The "Glass Ceiling" A longstanding concern of the Jewish community relations field has been the existence of a "glass ceiling", or invisible barrier, that obstructs women from advancing to the most senior positions. Although increasing numbers of women have entered "non-traditional" occupations (e.g., engineering, architecture, medicine), they can be found primarily in certain departments or specialties and not at the highest levels of decision-making and finance. Women occupy 40 percent of all executive, management and administrative positions, but these are clustered in entry- and middle-levels of management. Only one percent of CEOs and 3.5 percent of top officers of Fortune 500 companies are women, and women comprise only 5 percent of Fortune 500 boards of directors. This reality is reflected within the Jewish communal world in terms of women's access to top level executive positions in national and large local agencies. For many years it has been assumed that since women had only recently entered the work force in larger numbers at some point in the future they would be considered for the most senior executive positions. If this were true, then the 40 percent of women employed in middle management positions over the past 10-15 years would be represented at the most senior levels now. In fact, only two percent have made it to the top. It also had been assumed that women are reluctant to move from one geographical location to another for employment, or that family responsibilities would inhibit women from meeting the requirements of senior executive positions. There is little evidence to support either of these arguments.
The Jewish community relations field believes women should have every opportunity to compete fairly and equitably for all positions, and that vigorous efforts must be made to promote women to the most senior positions. The method of selecting candidates from a pool of applicants known as an "insiders' network", or from a set of criteria that automatically disadvantages women, have both served to exclude women from knowing about, or being considered for, senior executive positions. Wage disparities in both the Jewish community and corporate America highlight the inequitable treatment of men and women in the workplace. In 1993, women earned approximately $0.75 for every $1.00 earned by men. Sixty-five percent of all minimum wage earners were women. Senior-level female staff in Jewish federations earn between 67 and 92 percent of their male colleagues in comparable positions. Sexual Harassment In 1993, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in Harris v. Forklift Systems Inc., that it was not necessary for plaintiffs to show that sexual harassment made the workplace environment so hostile as to cause "severe psychological injury". At issue in Harris was the question of what a victim must prove when alleging harassment. The Court was asked to decide how bad conduct must be to meet the legal definition of harassment, and what damage that sexual harassment must cause the woman. While the unanimous and swift decision rendered by the Court was viewed as a positive decision for women, it did not fully satisfy some advocacy groups who asserted that the Supreme Court's ruling that conduct must be offensive to a "reasonable person" or "reasonable woman" does not provide lower courts with adequate guidance on interpreting those standards. (See the NJCRAC's model sexual harassment policy, adopted by the NJCRAC Executive Committee in June 1992.) Reproductive Choice For the first time in at least 10 years, federal employees are now allowed to obtain health insurance which includes abortion coverage. In addition, other legislative measures allow women in federal prisons to receive abortion services, and Washington, D.C. can use local funds to finance abortions. Federal policy requires states to provide funding for abortions in cases of rape and incest. Despite these gains, attempts to extend Medicaid coverage for abortion services have been unsuccessful. In June 1993, the House of Representatives approved an amendment that effectively would ban abortion funding for poor women except to save the life of the mother or in cases of rape or incest. This action was a disappointment to pro-choice advocates, including the NJCRAC, who believed that a pro-choice President and Congress would assure passage of such legislation. The Free Access to Clinic Entrances Act (FACE) was passed by the Congress and signed into law by the President in 1994. This legislation prohibits threats and acts of force and physical obstruction that injures, intimidates, or interferes with an individual seeking access to, or providing, abortion services. Passage of this bill was given new impetus following the murder of a Florida physician outside his clinic in March 1993, and the Supreme Court decision in Bray v. Alexandria Women's Health Clinic that upheld the right of anti-choice demonstrators to obstruct access to clinic entrances. FACE provides important protection for freedom of access by women to reproductive health clinics. The Freedom of Choice Act, a bill that would forbid states from restricting a woman's right to an abortion, is stalled in the Congress, after being approved by House and Senate committees. Some of the bill's key provisions, related to the continuation of a state's right to restrict a minor's access and to limit funding for abortions, have generated controversy. Other state restrictions such as mandated waiting periods and spousal consent would be overturned by enactment of this legislation. Women's Health President Clinton's health care reform plan, the Health Security Act, as introduced, calls for provision of coverage for mammograms and pap smears, both as preventative services, and regular medical services. The proposed legislation also includes coverage for family planning services, contraceptive advice, and services for pregnant women. While not defined, "services for pregnant women" are generally considered to include prenatal care, childbirth, postnatal care, and abortion. There is continuing concern about the need for parity in research and funding for women's health concerns. Violence Against Women The NJCRAC continues to support legislation that would provide funds for assistance to victims of sexual assault, training of police, prosecutors and judges focusing on violence against women, improved safety in public spaces, and education programs in schools. The Violence Against Women Act (S.11/H.R.113), first introduced into Congress in 1990, was passed by the Senate as part of the ominibus crime bill in November 1993, which is currently in a House-Senate conference committee. The Violence Against Women Act would provide funds to combat violent crimes committed against women, while also introducing a "civil rights" provision to help fight violence against women. Under this Act, a woman would have the additional legal option of bringing action against her attacker in federal civil court if she is able to prove the violence was committed solely on the basis of her gender. UN Conference on Women The Fourth World Conference on Women will be convened by the United Nations in Beijing, China, in September 1995, to appraise the advancement of women since the 1985 conference. In developing policy for Beijing, the NJCRAC is urging the U.S. government to ratify the UN Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women, to convene appropriate conferences to review the status of women in the U.S. and to play a leading role in the formulation of resolutions consistent with the field's commitment to full equality for women everywhere in all spheres of life, free from intimidation of any kind. The NJCRAC also will be monitoring closely the formal and informal proceedings of this conference to ensure that it is not used as a platform to attack Israel or for the expression of anti-Semitic or other racist statements. The Jewish community relations field should
The Union of Orthodox Jewish Congregations of America does not, as a matter Of longstanding policy, join in the joint Program Plan section on "Reproductive Choice. " We cannot endorse a public policy that does not reflect the complex response of halacha to the abortion issue. In most circumstances the halacha proscribes abortion but there are cases in which halacha permits and indeed mandates abortion. The question is a sensitive one and personal decisions in this area should be made with recognized halachic authorities. |
